The history of water treatment has been marked by slow, gradual discoveries that coincided with human development. While water filtration technology only became successful and widely used in the 20th century, the history of water treatment can be traced back to thousands of years ago.
Early in The History of Water Treatment
Man has sought pure, clean water for as long as he has been on Earth. The earliest recorded mention of water filtration and purification can be found in Sanskrit writings from about 2000 B.C.E. These writings state that “impure water should be purified by being boiled over a fire…or it may be purified by filtration through sand and coarse gravel and then allowed to cool.” This demonstrates that even in some of the earliest civilizations the basics of water purification were known. There is also some evidence that the ancient Egyptians used wick siphons for water clarification. Later, following the tutelage of Hippocrates, the Greek and Roman empires used cloth bags and additives such as pounded barley to filter out bad tastes in water.
Important Discoveries in the History of Water Treatment
After Sir Francis Bacon renewed interest in filtration in 1627, a number of important scientific discoveries deeply affected the history of water treatment. Around 1690, Anton van Leeuwenhoek invented an early version of the modern microscope, which allowed scientists to more effectively study particles in water. Meanwhile, in Italy, Lucas Antonius Portius invented the first effective sand filtration system using multiple perforated compartments and large grains of sand. These two inventions allowed people in 19th century Britain to examine disease-causing bacteria in water and create one of the world’s first municipal water treatment systems.
Modern Developments in the History of Water Treatment
In the early 1900s, English physicians discovered that chlorine was very effective in eliminating disease from water, and chlorination of public water systems began. The United States and other countries soon followed suit, and in 1972, the Environmental Protection Agency passed the Clean Water Act, requiring cities to filter public water. Today, amid growing concerns about the safety of water fluoridation and chlorination, individual households have begun to install filtration devices to taps, showerheads, and entire plumbing systems.
The History of Water Treatment Continues
The history of water filtration is still being written. While individuals in America and other countries continue to improve the quality of household water, many people in developing countries lack the ability to properly filter their water. The challenge moving forward will be in improving water filtration for all of humanity.
Chlorine is commonly used to disinfect our water. However, chlorine in water can also harm us. Because of this, we need to learn how to remove the chlorine in water, or how to entirely replace chlorine usage in our water treatment.
Why Chlorine Is Added into Our Water Supply
Chlorine is well-known and widely used to disinfect our water. Chlorine in water deactivates various pathogenic microorganisms (like bacteria or viruses), which cause illness. Authorities chlorinate public water supplies in order to kill the hazardous bacteria present in our water or water pipes. In addition to disinfecting water, chlorine is also used to disinfect various home and hospital areas and to bleach fabrics. We have used chlorine in water as a disinfectant for over two hundred years.
How Chlorine in Water Can Hurt Us
Although chlorine can disinfect our water, it can also hurt us if ingested. Chlorine in water can form into toxins called trihalomethanes (THMs); THMs correlate with diseases like asthma, eczema, bladder cancer, and heart diseases. Studies have shown that drinking large amounts of chlorinated tap water dramatically increasespregnant women’s risk of miscarriages and birth defects.
How We Can Remove Chlorine from Water
Carbon filters remove chlorine, THMs, and other harmful contaminants from our water. Additionally, while they produce the same excellent water quality that electronic filters produce, carbon filters are much cheaper. You can also remove chlorine and other contaminants from water without a home filtration system by placing water in an uncovered container and leaving it inside your refrigerator for twenty-four hours.
Water Treatment Alternatives to Chlorine in Water
Although we need to disinfect our water, we don’t need to use chlorine to do so. Several Canadian and European cities are disinfecting their water using the ozone instead of chlorine. Some cities in the United States, like Las Vegas and Santa Clara, are also switching to this alternative. However, the easiest way to get rid of the chlorine in water is simply to filter it out.
Access to water has always been an important factor in the location of settlements, whether primitive or modern, human or animal, and the need for water is a universal part of life. Unfortunately, billions of people around the world still lack access to potable water. Water shortages are usually defined as third-world phenomena, but shortages of clean water are also prevalent in the United States. As the world’s population grows, humanity must recognize that water access is becoming an increasingly global concern.
Access to Clean Water
Access to water is vital, but access to clean water is even more critical. Today, approximately one billion people do not have access to clean water, which has severely harmed the health and economic development of the most affected regions. Further, according to UNICEF, lack of safe water is the world’s single largest cause of illness. Lack of clean water can cause afflictions such as river blindness, cholera, diarrhea, dysentery, and a number of other diseases and infections. The global water crisis is not unsolvable, though. Countries around the world are actively pursuing solutions such as reduction of pollution, infrastructure building, desalinization, improved irrigation, and more.
In man’s effort to stay safe, he has found ways to treat water. Water treatment occurs before the water enters a house. Unfortunately, water treatment is so simplistic that many people are still concerned for population safety. Sewage treatment is done on used water before it re-enters the source, such as a river or under ground supply. Sewage treatment speeds the process of eutrophication, or the aging process of water, and creates favorable breeding grounds for disease that would not be as concentrated if nature took care of itself. Taking the larger particles from sewage water is acceptable, but the later-stage biological processes are what cause eutrophication.
Access to water and particularly, clean water will always present a major problem to the human race. Unfortunately, there are too many people needing too many resources from the planet.
Phosphates are broken down into four primary groups. Orthophosphate is used for detergents and baking, pyrophosphate for water treatment and metal cleaning, and tripolyphosphate in meat processing and, oddly enough, dish detergent. The fourth group, and the focus of this article, is polyphosphate, which is commonly used in kaolin production, water treatment, food processing and preservation, and more.
How is Polyphosphate Manufactured?
Polyphosphate is a blend of phosphoric acid and other compounds or elements. Starting with phosphoric rock, there are two methods of processing phosphoric acid. The wet process combines the phosphoric acid with sulfuric acid. This compound is generally used in the agricultural market. The dry method uses heat to purify the phosphoric rock into phosphorous pentoxide. This phosphorous pentoxide is then dissolved in either water or phosphoric acid to increase its potency. The result is the basis for polyphosphate chemical compounds.
Polyphosphate in Water Purification
Polyphosphate is an effective agent that prevents the natural iron in well water from staining concrete and other porous surfaces brown. Anyone using well water can also appreciate its odor retardant ability. Orthophosphate and polyphosphate can be used together in treating water along with additional phosphate compounds. Their job is to stabilize the quality of water, inhibit corrosion of water pathways, remove scale deposits, and discourage unhealthy microbe growth.
Polyphosphate in Food Preparation
Interestingly, polyphosphate is often used in food preservation. Chickens are injected with a polyphosphate solution directly after slaughter. This process greatly reduces thaw drip, aids in water retention, and increases the stability of the cooked meat. This method is also used when freezing fresh fish. Although salt would accomplish the same result, it is not used because excess salt can create unpleasant tastes in preserved foods.
Polyphosphate and Your Health
Since most foods break down upon consumption into a simple phosphate in the human stomach, addition of polyphosphates to food or water poses little risk. While polyphosphates can be harmful if taken in very large quantities, most people usually do not exceed the recommended daily level in their diets so there is no cause for concern.
Water well maintenance is an important aspect of keeping drinking water clean. Annual checks for casing damage and water quality checks can ensure drinking water is free from bacteria and pollution. Some well treatments to maintain water quality are often used in both single family and community water wells.
Maintaining Well Integrity
The design of a traditional water well can be as simple as an excavated hole with a covering, or the well can be drilled with a casing that extends past the deep rock layer into the main aquifer. The maintenance for these different styles of wells will depend on the materials used. A casing should be examined anytime there is cloudy or muddy water for an extended time. If a shallow, dug well can be cleaned manually then this should be done anytime debris enters the well. Both styles of water well should be checked annually to ensure the well is in good working order.
Water Testing
Water well maintenance should also include testing of the water quality on an annual basis. Bacteria can pollute wells anytime the groundwater in the region becomes contaminated. Testing for chloroform bacteria, nitrates, and other common pollutants will ensure the water is safe for consumption. Some bacteria can be eliminated using chemical treatments, such as chlorine bleach. Local contaminants can be a hazard, especially in more populated areas.
Preventing Contamination
When performing water well maintenance it is best to have a professional perform all needed testing, although there are also home test kits available to test water quality. To prevent pollutants from entering the well, it is important to keep all toxic materials away from the surrounding area. Motor oil, paint, and other common household chemicals can add toxins to the well if they enter the ground near the well opening. A well maintenance expert can provide recommendations for the proper distance to maintain between the well, the home septic, and other possible contaminants.
Water Well Treatments
When performing regular water well maintenance there may be a need to add chemicals to the well to eliminate bacteria. In the case of chemical pollutants, such as fertilizers, the well may become unusable for drinking purposes depending on the severity of the contamination and the chemicals that have polluted the well. The addition of chlorine is common in wells with microorganisms. The amount of chlorine needed will vary, so make sure a professional advises you on the amount needed within your region.
Regional Importance
Water well maintenance may vary from one region to the next. The average life span of a well is about twenty years. After this time, maintenance will include drilling a new well and ensuring the old water well has been shut down properly. All water wells, including those no longer in use, need to be registered for safety reasons.
Cool, refreshing, crystal clear water tastes great on a hot summer day, but most people don’t give much thought to what’s actually in their drinking water. The following is an explanation of how water treatment affects the tap water that people drink every day.
Aluminum Sulfate
Alum, or aluminum sulfate, is added to water to aid in filtration. Alum acts as a coagulant to bind fine suspended particles together into larger particles that can then be filtered out of the water. It results in water that is clearer, and the alum itself will be cleared from the water. Because the aluminum is filtered back out along with the particles it binds to, it poses no health risk.
Fluoride
The EPA reports that fluoride is added strictly for the dental benefits. Fluoride does not improve the actual quality of the water supply, but it is proven to help protect the teeth of people who consume it. However, water fluoridation is becoming increasingly controversial. The National Water Council currently advises parents not to give fluoridated water to infants. Further, the Centers for Disease Control estimate that one in three children in America have irreversible damage to their permanent teeth as a result of fluoride. Supporters point to evidence showing fewer cavities for people consuming fluoridated water while opponents claim that there are serious health risks, including the risk of cancer. Of all the chemicals added to water, fluoride is the most controversial, and the only one that is not needed for actual water quality.
Chlorine
The EPA reports that chlorine is added as a disinfectant. Derivatives of chlorine, including chlorine dioxide and chloramines, are also added to prevent water supplies from turning into breeding grounds for bacteria and viruses. The health problems with consuming high levels of chlorine are clear. However, water departments around the nation are careful to use enough chlorine to kill bacteria without using so much as to cause health problems.
Potassium Permanganate
This oxidizing agent is added to lake water. It is used to clear the water of iron, manganese, and some natural tastes and odors. Removing the iron and manganese ensures that the water does not cause stains on clothing and plumbing fixtures. After being oxidized by potassium permanganate, these minerals become insoluble and can be easily removed through basic filtration methods. However, concentrated levels of potassium permanganate can be harmful to the skin.
Polyphosphate
Used as a liquid substance, polyphosphate helps to isolate the iron, manganese, and calcium in water. When added to water, polyphosphate protects water lines by preventing corrosion of pipes.
Any chemical added to water has the potential to cause health problems. However, it is important to weigh the potential risks against the health benefits that are gained by having clear, clean water that is free of algae, bacteria and viruses. Regardless of where you live, it is a good idea to have an additional filtration system in your own home to remove some of these chemicals.
The distribution of water prices is a growing global concern. Governments struggle to solve the problem of pricing while meeting the demands of economic development. This must be done while facing aging equipment and limited resources. Understanding basic structures and influences over water prices will raise awareness and possibly offer solutions.
Factors in Setting Water Prices
Since water pricing is considered a public concern, government authorities must regulate water pricing and distribution. Water pricing structure is a complex issue determined by several factors. The first is the supply of water available and whether transportation is necessary. Locations with a limited supply must meet demands by outsourcing and transporting water from other areas, driving up costs and sometimes resulting in conflicts between metropolitan areas and agricultural demands. Severe droughts and water pollution can also temporarily wreck havoc on local resources, resulting in increased outsourcing. These result in wide ranges of pricing structures depending on location. For example, for a Reno, Nevada resident, the outsourcing of water sanitation and transportation is inevitable due to limited resources and growing consumption demands. Local utilities are therefore forced to charge expensive fees in ensuring the finite supply will meet demand. Milwaukee citizens, however, enjoy much lower fees due to an abundant supply from neighboring lakes.
Rising Prices
Maintenance is another factor that drives up water prices. A recent survey of 30 major US cities revealed that although water usage had significantly dropped, water prices continued to rise, especially in the Southwestern United States. The Environmental Protection Agency blames aging equipment and facilities; most of the equipment that is still in use was constructed over 70 years ago. Increasing erosion and deterioration of this equipment force utilities to raise fees to replace existing systems, which is reflected in consumers’ water fees.
Continuing Conflict
According to the Environmental Protection Agency publication “Water On Tap: What you Need to Know,” the average American uses about 90 gallons of water each day, and each American household uses approximately 107,000 gallons of water each year. While treatment facilities struggle to keep with increasing demand, golf courses, lawns, and aesthetic fountains continue to be a major user of this limited resource. Unless this fact changes, government, businesses and the general public will be more affected.
A Look Ahead
Some potential solutions to this problem include: Business investment in water renewal programs, raising public awareness and new conservation policies. Do your part by conserving water before water prices reach astronomical levels.
Stormwater is exactly what it sounds like it is – heavy amounts of water that accumulate quickly from sudden rainstorms and spring snowmelt. Stormwater originating with sudden, intense storms is far less predictable in quantity and timing. Regardless of the source of stormwater, runoff can place great strain on municipal stormwater management systems.
What is stormwater management?
Stormwater management is the collective effort to mitigate not only the quantities of stormwater that municipal systems must be designed to carry, but also to reduce the pollution factor it introduces. In North Carolina, the state Department of Environment and Natural Resources reports that polluted stormwater runoff is the leading cause of water pollution in the state. We all have seen various forms of litter rushing past on its way to storm sewer drains. The largest items remain on top of the sewer grate, but smaller ones enter the storm sewer system and often are dumped directly into nearby creeks, streams and rivers. Though this certainly is a form of pollution, it is the form that is secondary to the pollution that originates with stormwater runoff. The greater problem is created by the small particles and chemical pollutants that stormwater picks up as it rushes past.
Why are so many people talking about it?
Many more people are aware of the problem of stormwater management now than in the past. Increased awareness in many respects has arisen from some of the requirements of Phase II of the federal Clean Water Act that went into effect in 2005. Phase I required large cities to address stormwater runoff issues; Phase II extended those requirements to small and medium sized cities, as well as cities experiencing rapid growth and those located in areas where there are bodies of water sensitive to the onslaught of stormwater runoff pollution. The federal law has increased awareness among construction engineers and contractors, as well as within municipal governments. Greater general environmental awareness among the citizenry also has served to bring stormwater management into the view of individuals.
Why is it a real problem?
High volumes of stormwater runoff occurring in a short time can overwhelm municipal systems’ ability to handle the volume. Particularly in light of the budget issues that city governments have been dealing with over the past several years, expanding capacity often is not possible. At minimum, capacity expansion is extremely difficult and likely requires diminished spending in other areas. Sometimes capacity is the least of the problems associated with stormwater management. In many cities, stormwater pollution leads not only to environmental damage, but also to legal issues.
What can I do to ease the strain on stormwater systems in my city?
Soil is a natural filter and “cleaning” substrate for stormwater. Soil particles and pollution molecules carry chemical charges that attract each other. As stormwater seeps through soil, pollution compounds can be left in the soil where they can become nutrients for plant growth. Increased pavement and other impervious surfaces such as asphalt driveways and patios made of concrete pavers covers previous soil that could accept and clean stormwater runoff. New or reworked patios can be surfaced with previous concrete. New driveways and parking areas can be gravel or open grid concrete pavers to provide surfaces that feel solid for walking or driving on, but also provide planting area for ground cover plants and a defense against stormwater runoff.
Stormwater management is not only a city government concern. Individuals and developers can make simple and nearly painless changes that provide highly positive effects.
Mosquitoes are insects that feed off of flowers and sometimes the blood of mammals. Mosquitoes are found everywhere, even in the Arctic. Typically, the ideal weather for mosquito’s is generally warm and with rainfall or post-rainfall water present.When the population of mosquitoes swell, there is an increase risk of disease spreading and water contamination. Knowing how and why they prefer certain locations can help diminish their numbers by taking action and controlling breeding in that area. Mosquito’s never venture far from water because it is necessary for their breeding process.
What is the life cycle of a mosquito, and how does water play a role?
Mosquitoes need water to complete their life cycle and can breed in any source of water. The female mosquito can lay up to 50-100 eggs at a time, and up to 500 eggs during its normal life-span. These eggs are placed in bodies of water or areas with extreme moisture. Depending on the species of mosquito, the incubation period varies greatly. Some can remain eggs for years until submerged in water while others may hatch after 1-2 days. When hatched the larvae lives in water and feeds off of organic material within the water. Approximately, after 5-6 days the larvae becomes a pupa in preparation for adult life. Such as in its larvae phase, the mosquito pupa lives in water. This phase lasts only a couple of days, and the adult emerges on the surface of the water. As it is obvious to see water and the mosquito go together and without water the mosquito cannot finish its natural life cycle.
What are ideal mosquito breeding sites and how to eradicate them?
Although mosquitoes can fly miles away from their breeding site, most rarely travel further than 300 feet from their birthplace. Water and the mosquito are cohesive to the breeding process and areas that have stagnant water are ideal places for breeding sites. Depending on the species of mosquito, the types of locations can vary, but one component that remains the same is the necessity of water. In residential areas, pools, discarded containers, tree holes, plant pots and gutters are ideal locations among others.
The best strategy to combat mosquito populations is to empty collected water in various places every week, drain or cover pools, fill tree holes and remove clutter from ditches and drains. There are also chemicals that can be placed in pools and ponds (find one that contains Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis or BTI, a naturally occurring soil bacterium that can kill mosquito larvae in present water) and personal repellents (usually containing DEET).
Going green or inhibiting the impact of direct and indirect sources of water pollution is vital to reclaiming water resources throughout the world. Awareness of the two categories of sources of pollutions, direct and indirect, further clarifies the need for change and how it can be accomplished to revitalize Mother Earth and her bounty.
Direct and Indirect Sources of Pollution
A direct source of pollution, also known as a point source, is the point from which pollutants are released into a water source. An indirect source of water pollution, nonpoint source, is pollution introduced into a body of water after passing over or through the ground. Direct sources of pollutions include:
Sewage treatment plants
Industrial plants
Storm water drains
Animal feeding lots
These types of direct sources of pollutions emit fluids directly into water supplies which affect the quality of drinking water in communities and urban areas. Indirect sources of pollutions include:
Litter at parks and beaches
Residential sewer systems
Fertilizer, pet feces, and other contaminants from yards and gardens
The contaminants indirectly enter water systems or supplies from groundwater or soil systems from the air, rain, or littering.
Whether water pollution occurs from direct or indirect sources, water is rendered poisonous for use by animals or humans, river and lake ecosystems are adversely affected causing an inbalance of their environment and deforestation by acidic rainfall are a few of the calamities of unchecked water pollution.
Reclaim Water Quality and Inhibit Water Pollution
Globally, the European Union, the Health and Safety Executive of the United Kingdom and the United States Environmental Protection Agency investigate sources of pollution, address pollution issues and circulate information on how to reclaim the quality of the global environment. Additionally, global environmentalists promote the work and solutions offered by scientists to lessen the sources of pollution of water systems and reclaim water quality. It is these grassroots efforts that can make the biggest difference in water quality.
Solutions for Everybody
Water pollution affects everybody. Awareness and the practice of some simple solutions will make a world of difference in reducing sources of pollution:
Recycling materials lessens pollution created in the production of plastics, paper, and aluminum containers.
Properly dispose of hazardous liquid waste. Fats, oils, grease, solvents, and paints should not be poured down drains. Contact your local waste disposal for proper instructions.
Use biodegradable cleansers or cleaning practices rather than chemical based cleansers for household chores.
Prepare meals from bulk ingredients rather than prepared packaged foods. Less boxes, wrappers, and cans reduce the environmental impact of each meal dramatically.
Walking or bicycling to the store will reduce the amount of air contaminants produced by fossil fuel powered transportation.
