All About Water

Water and Sodium: An Ambiguous Relationship

Your government knows that your water is contaminated, but may not be doing anything about it. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) created the Contaminant Candidate List (CCL) to monitor unregulated drinking water contaminants, like sodium. The contaminants on the CCL are chemicals that are known or expected to occur in public water systems. The EPA reviews the CCL to decide whether these unregulated chemicals should be regulated by the Safe Drinking Water Act. The EPA is currently reviewing the relationship between sodium and water.

Water and Sodium: Categorizing a Unique Contaminant

Chemicals listed on the CCL are categorized into three groups, chemicals that should be researched, chemicals that require more data, and chemicals that should be considered in filtration legislation. Sodium, however, is difficult to categorize as a contaminant candidate. Sodium is potentially unhealthy: high sodium intake may cause hypertension. However, sodium levels in drinking water are typically low and unlikely to seriously harm one’s health. Sodium’s relative harmlessness makes it difficult to gauge how much sodium legislation should allow.

Water and Sodium: Pending Research

People are confused about how much sodium is healthy to drink. Researchers already know a lot about sodium, and compared to other contaminants, it’s not very dangerous. Because of this, the EPA wasn’t even sure whether they should list sodium on the CCL. However, they ultimately decided to include sodium, as they wanted to reexamine the current sodium levels in water that legislation allows. The EPA classified the relationship between water and sodium as a research priority; further research will help them clarify their stance on water and sodium. After sodium’s health effects have been sufficiently researched, the EPA will decide if sodium should stay on the CCL for other reasons.

Water and Sodium: Should I Be Worried?

You shouldn’t worry too much about the sodium in your drinking water. The sodium levels in drinking water are so low that they probably won’t seriously harm your health. The Food and Drug Administration’s sodium labeling system categorizes the sodium in an average glass of water as “very in low sodium.” And although sodium should not be consumed in excess, it is still an essential nutrient.

Water and Sodium: How Can I Reduce My Sodium Intake?

You don’t need to switch to bottled water to ensure a healthy, low-sodium diet. People consume far more sodium by eating than they do by drinking tap water. If you want to reduce your risk of sodium’s negative health effects, plan a healthy diet for yourself with a doctor or dietitian. To reduce sodium consumption, monitor your food, not your water.

The Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973 was designed to protect threatened species from extinction.

The History of Species Conservation

The wildlife conservation movement was first driven by the dwindling populations of certain species, such as the bison and whooping crane, and the extinction of others, like the passenger pigeon. One can attribute the decline of these species to several factors, including market hunting, habitat loss, pesticide usage and the introduction of non-native species. Notably, the introduction of the Asian plant kudzu decimated American wildlife, often smothering native plants and even choking trees to death. Before the Endangered Species Act, some legislation was passed to try to conserve species, but this legislation was largely ineffectual.

The Creation of the Endangered Species Act

In 1973, President Nixon declared existing species conservation efforts inadequate and asked Congress to create better endangered species legislation. Congress replied by completely rewriting preexisting law into the Endangered Species Act, which was authored by a team of lawyers and scientists led by Dr. Russell E. Train. The Endangered Species Act forever changed American environmental conservation.

The Endangered Species Act

The Endangered Species Act was described by California historian Kevin Starr as “the Magna Carta of the environmental movement.” The Act’s stated purpose is to conserve “threatened and endangered plants and animals and the habitats in which they are found.” Its mission is facilitated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), which handles marine species, and the United States Fish and Wildlife Services (FWS), which handles freshwater fish and all other species.

The Endangered Species Act List

The two main goals of the Endangered Species Act are, first, to prevent the extinction of endangered plant and animal species, and second, to recover and maintain those populations by eliminating threats to their survival. To qualify for the federal list of endangered species, a species must meet one of five criteria:

1. The species’ habitat is threatened.
2. The species is over-used for commercial, recreational, scientific or educational purposes.
3. The species is declining due to disease or predation.
4. The species is inadequately regulated.
5. Other natural or manmade factors are endangering the species’ continued existence.

Endangered species candidates are then prioritized according to the amount of help that they need. The Endangered Species Act was amended in 1982 to prevent economic factors from being considered during the listing and prioritization processes.

The Endangered Species Act Mandates Recovery Plans

The FWS and NMFS then must create a recovery plan outlining the goals, costs, required tasks, and timeline of recovering an endangered species. The recovery plan prescribes “site-specific” actions, “objective, measurable criteria” for judging how well a species is recovering, and an estimate of resources necessary for recovery.

Results of the Endangered Species Act

Almost fifty species have been delisted since the creation of the Endangered Species Act, twenty-two due to recovery, including the bald eagle and peregrine falcon. However, there are still currently 1,890 plant and animal species on the threatened and endangered lists.

Water and Weedkillers

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An Overlooked Petroleum Crisis

Coastal waters are an incredibly important resource. In addition to the breathtaking natural beauty they lend to the states and territories of the United States, coastal waters also play a critical role in commercial transport, agriculture, tourism and recreational commerce. Perhaps it’s no great surprise, then, that nearly half of Americans live in coastal zones despite the ready availability of land stretching between the Pacific and the Atlantic.

The Coastal Zone Act, a collection of laws, regulations and ordinances jointly administered by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), works to protect the quality of America’s coastal zones. The Coastal Zone Act focuses on controlling non-point source pollution, or indirect, cumulative pollution, through introducing enforceable state level policies which curb environmentally unsound practices.

What exactly is non-point pollution?

Non-point pollution refers to the “trickle down” accumulation of run-off pollutants in coastal waters. Unlike point pollution, which describes the piping of industrial chemicals or sewage directly into the sea, non-point pollution occurs when toxins and non-biodegradable materials penetrate through soil or drainage infrastructure, eventually making their way into coastal waters.

What are the major sources of non-point pollution?

NOAA and the EPA have defined six major sources of non-point pollution in the United States. These include forestry zones, agriculture zones, urban areas, marinas, areas where landscaping that modifies shorelines and rivers is conducted, as well as riverbank and wetland areas. A variety of programs defined by the Coastal Zone Act address each specific source of non-point pollution.

What are some Coastal Zone Act programs?

The Coastal Zone Act advocates educational programs which help to inform the growth and development of coastal communities. The Nonpoint Education for Municipal Officials (NEMO) program, for example, provides classes and consulting for local officials which helps them to make water quality conscious decisions in terms of zoning, construction and natural resource management.

The Clean Marina Program is also a product of the Coastal Zone Act. It offers tax incentives and other benefits to Marinas which adhere to strict fuel, oil and sewage management policies.

Other Coastal Zone Act programs include public education campaigns such as the production of signboards, billboards, and public radio service announcements which promote the tenets of non-point pollution control.

How effective is the Coastal Zone Act?

The Coastal Zone Act reduces urban pollution sources, protects coastal ecosystems and ensures cleaner, more beautiful coastal regions for today and tomorrow’s generation. With the introduction of new programs and stricter regulations in 1990, the Coastal Zone Act was further empowered to solicit state-level cooperation and deliver greater successes.

As of 2008, 34 states had adopted non-point pollution control programs of some type. In the same year more than twenty coastal and Great Lake states had begun implementing the Clean Marina Act, and several states including Massachusetts and South Carolina instituted pollution control planning in their urban development processes.

Our fresh water supplies are vital to survival, but every year pollution from landfills makes a portion of the fresh water supplies in the world unusable. Landfill conditions, where trash cannot degrade easily, increase the amount of pollution that enters fresh water streams, lakes and ground water sources. The pollutants range from human waste to chemicals, causing problems with local environments and ecosystems. Finding an alternative to landfills is the only way to reduce these devastating effects.

The Problem

When considering the impact landfills have on water pollution, the first step is taking a look at how landfills work. In general, waste is packed tightly into piles, preventing sunlight from reaching lower levels of trash. Since the landfill conditions limit the exposure to the elements, there is little chance that any trash in the landfill can degrade even if it is made from naturally biodegradable materials such as paper. Materials thrown into a landfill are then rained on, and the runoff pollutes lakes, streams, and groundwater sources.

The Pollution

Water pollution from landfills is a major problem in countries around the world. Chemicals from fertilizers, organic human waste, and metal are the leading causes of water contamination from landfills. The process of leaching, where water is filtered through layers of trash, can allow the contaminated water to enter local water sources easily. Household waste, including batteries and other common items, also contribute significantly.

Household Waste

The waste from hospitals, municipal sewage, and other community based facilities are leading contributors to pollution from landfills, but household waste is a problem that everyone can work on fixing together. Items such as batteries, for instance, can be recycled to ensure the corrosive chemicals in the product don’t end up in the groundwater (however, when recycling batteries, people must ensure that the batteries are processed at well-regulated plants).  Glass, plastic, some metals, and paper can also be recycled in the local community. Common household chemicals, including paint and cleaners, can be taken to a special waste facility to keep them out of landfills, as well.

Community Waste

Community waste that causes water pollution from landfills includes waste from large facilities, such as hospitals, as well as sewage. These pollutants are more complicated to remove and a little more difficult to reduce for the average citizen. Being aware of personal water usage within the home is one way to begin reducing some community water waste. Communities that work together to find alternatives to landfills can also make a big difference.

Alternatives to Landfills

There are several alternative to landfills, including recycling and reducing the amount of waste produced. Sanitary landfills are one alternative that is becoming more common, but the simplest thing that you can do is to keep toxic chemicals out of landfills. Opting for reusable choices, such as cloth diapers, and reducing the consumption of paper and petroleum based products can make a significant difference.

In late 2001, Americans’ vulnerability to terror attacks became suddenly and violently apparent. In the wake of the September 11 terrorist attacks, a spate of letters laced with anthrax killed five Americans and sickened 17. Though the anthrax mailings were not linked to foreign terrorism, their appearance on the heels of September 11 sparked rumors that America would be attacked with biological warfare. In an effort to protect the country from biological terrorist attack, Congress passed the Bioterrorism Act in June 2002. Title IV of the Bioterrorism Act addresses the safety of public water supplies.

What the Bioterrorism Act Requires

The Bioterrorism Act stipulated that all public water systems serving over 3,300 people assess their vulnerability to any type of intentional human act that could compromise the safety and accessibility of their water. The administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency was to be provided with a copy of this assessment by a deadline sometime between March 2003 and June 2004, depending on the number of people served by the water system. Within six months of submitting the vulnerability assessment, the water systems administrators were required to create or update an emergency response plan based on the vulnerabilities identified and certify to the EPA that they had done so.

Vulnerability Assessment

Vulnerability assessments of water systems [PDF] included characterization of the water system, identification of critical assets that could be harmed, and the possible consequences of an attack. A water system’s characterization included such details as its facilities, operating procedures, services provided, and its customers (i.e. the general public, firefighters, farmers, etc.). Critical assets included the water system’s infrastructure, conveyances, storage and treatment facilities, sources of water, its computer systems, and so forth. The Bioterrorism Act asked administrators to brainstorm ways their water system might be attacked and the possible consequences if this were to happen.

Emergency Response Plans

The Bioterrorism Act required water systems to come up with emergency response plans outlining what they would do if their water supplies were intentionally contaminated or threatened with contamination. These plans [PDF] could include, for example, identifying alternative sources of water and methods for delivering the water to consumers, identifying agencies the water system would work with, such as intelligence or law enforcement, methods for decontaminating the water, and practice of scenarios.

Results

Though the Bioterrorism Act did not stipulate further updates, water systems were strongly advised to review and update their vulnerability assessments and emergency response plans on a regular basis. Many have done so. To this day, no intentional contamination of US water supplies has been reported. If such a threat ever does materialize, water systems should be better prepared to deal with it as a result of the Bioterrorism Act.

The distribution of water prices is a growing global concern. Governments struggle to solve the problem of pricing while meeting the demands of economic development. This must be done while facing aging equipment and limited resources. Understanding basic structures and influences over water prices will raise awareness and possibly offer solutions.

Factors in Setting Water Prices

Since water pricing is considered a public concern, government authorities must regulate water pricing and distribution. Water pricing structure is a complex issue determined by several factors. The first is the supply of water available and whether transportation is necessary. Locations with a limited supply must meet demands by outsourcing and transporting water from other areas, driving up costs and sometimes resulting in conflicts between metropolitan areas and agricultural demands.  Severe droughts and water pollution can also temporarily wreck havoc on local resources, resulting in increased outsourcing. These result in wide ranges of pricing structures depending on location. For example, for a Reno, Nevada resident, the outsourcing of water sanitation and transportation is inevitable due to limited resources and growing consumption demands. Local utilities are therefore forced to charge expensive fees in ensuring the finite supply will meet demand. Milwaukee citizens, however, enjoy much lower fees due to an abundant supply from neighboring lakes.

Rising Prices

Maintenance is another factor that drives up water prices.  A recent survey of 30 major US cities revealed that although water usage had significantly dropped, water prices continued to rise, especially in the Southwestern United States. The Environmental Protection Agency blames aging equipment and facilities; most of the equipment that is still in use was constructed over 70 years ago. Increasing erosion and deterioration of this equipment force utilities to raise fees to replace existing systems, which is reflected in consumers’ water fees.

Continuing Conflict

According to the Environmental Protection Agency publication “Water On Tap: What you Need to Know,” the average American uses about 90 gallons of water each day, and each American household uses approximately 107,000 gallons of water each year. While treatment facilities struggle to keep with increasing demand, golf courses, lawns, and aesthetic fountains continue to be a major user of this limited resource. Unless this fact changes, government, businesses and the general public will be more affected.

A Look Ahead

Some potential solutions to this problem include: Business investment in water renewal programs, raising public awareness and new conservation policies. Do your part by conserving water before water prices reach astronomical levels.

Water Regulation

Environmental Protection Agency

In the United States, the mission of the Environmental Protection Agency is to uphold standards of public health and protect the environment. The Environmental Protection Agency bases their efforts upon scientific information and enforces protection of the environment and its inhabitants, human, animal, and plants, with fair and effective policies established through the federal government. With the cooperation of communities, businesses, local, federal and tribal entities, the EPA has been a proven success in sustaining the eco-systems of the United States in a productive manner, setting the standard for global environment protection efforts.

Water Regulation

Laws concerning water regulation enacted by the United States Congress are the basis of the regulations and policies of the EPA. Important water regulation of the Environmental Protection Agency have been enacted by the Clean Water Act and Safe Drinking Water Act. Other important legislation includes the laws to control and lessen the impact of hazards to our environment from atomic and fossil energy, conservation and recovery, and issues pertaining to public health.

Clean Water Act

The Clean Water Act allows the Environmental Protection Agency to protect waterways in the United States from the harmful effects of pollution. This water regulation includes man-made and natural ponds and lakes, wetlands and rivers. CWA was enacted in 1972 and mandated the restoration and maintenance of the waterways of the United States by:

• Setting standards for industries to control pollution.
• Requiring states and tribal entities to address water quality and develop pollution control programs.
• Creating processes of development in wetlands to ensure environmental quality.
• Authorizing the EPA to oversee emergency response situations of release of oil or other hazardous substances that are a threat to public welfare.

Safe Drinking Water Act

The Safe Drinking Water Act requires the Environmental Protection Agency to announce and enforce standards to ensure the quality of public drinking water systems. The types of contaminants and standards are extensive and amended regularly to reflect the latest scientific findings. The SWDA is applicable to every public water system in the United States.

Coastal Zone Act Reauthorization Amendments

Coastal Zone Act Reauthorization Amendments requires states and territories to develop nonpoint pollution programs. The CZARA mandates are under the joint auspice of EPA and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.

Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act

Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act mandates drinking water systems must be periodically assessed for vulnerabilities to terrorist or other intentional malicious acts.

Passed by Congress in 1974, the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) is the bedrock of all other US federal laws regulating the quality and safety of drinking water. It authorizes the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to set standards for the safety of public drinking water, and forces states to comply. This involves regulating the levels of certain contaminants that may be found in the water supply, protecting the sources of the water, and setting requirements for the purification of water in public systems.

Effect on Water Quality

Before the Safe Drinking Water Act was passed, the US had established the Clean Water Act but had no national standards for determining or enforcing the safety of drinking water. What standards existed were established at the state or local level. How strong they were and how well they were enforced varied greatly. The Safe Drinking Water Act directed the EPA to identify contaminants in drinking water supplies that presented serious health risks, set limits on how much of these contaminants would be allowed in the water, and enforce those limits. As a result, many public water supplies nationwide became safer over the next few decades.

Immediate Results of The Safe Drinking Water Act

In 1975, months after the Safe Drinking Water Act passed, the EPA began testing the municipal water supplies in 80 cities for certain chemicals identified as carcinogenic.[] These chemicals came from sources as diverse as industrial pollution, agricultural runoff, natural sources, and even chlorination, the process of adding chlorine to the municipal water supply, which was meant to kill harmful bacteria. By June 1977, all states and municipalities were required to establish systems for testing their public water for contaminants, test regularly, and inform consumers of any risks they identified.[]

How Water Sources are Protected by the Safe Drinking Water Act

Initially, the EPA focused its efforts on removing identified pollutants from public water systems. Later amendments to the SDWA expanded the efforts to protect the original sources of the water. Reservoirs, lakes, streams, and groundwater are all covered by EPA regulations under the Safe Drinking Water Act. Under these regulations, the water must be tested regularly. Identified pollutants are to be removed as much as possible. In case of serious contamination, consumers must be notified. When a source of pollution is identified (ie industry or agricultural runoff), steps must be taken to stop the pollution.

Who Enforces the Safe Drinking Water Act?

While the EPA has primary responsibility for setting and enforcing the SDWA, most of the actual work is done at the state and local level. States are required to establish standards for drinking water safety that are in line with the SDWA.