All About Water

What Is a Water Tower: An Introduction

We see water towers all of the time, yet many of us are unsure what exactly they do. Just what is a water tower, anyway? Put succinctly, a water tower is an elevated water storage system that we use to pressurize and distribute our water.

What Is a Water Tower: The Purpose of Water Towers

Domestic water supplies must be pressurized if they are to be considered safe. Insufficiently pressurized water can cause a slew of problems. Insufficiently pressurized water may not be able to reach the upper floors of buildings, or to spray forcefully enough. More dangerously, insufficiently pressurized water that flows over hilly areas may become negatively charge and suck in groundwater. This untreated groundwater is likely contaminated with microorganisms and harmful chemicals, and would pollute drinking water supplies. Water towers also help us by acting as a reservoir during peak water, or water shortages.

What Is a Water Tower: How Water Towers are Built

Water towers vary greatly in appearance and material. These pressurizing, elevated water storage systems have to be at least twenty feet tall. On average, water towers are about 130 feet tall. Water towers must be rounded, but can come in many shapes, like spherical and cylindrical. We can make water towers out of many different materials, like steel and concrete. However, we always line water towers’ interiors to protect water from absorbing these construction materials. Because water towers depend on hydrostatic pressure, they function even during power outages. Refilling the water tower, however, does require electricity. The water tower’s water supplies fall during peak hours, and then are refilled at night.

What Is a Water Tower: The History of the Water Tower

The water tower became popular during the Industrial Revolution, as growing communities recognized their need to pressurize and distribute water. Often these water towers were elaborately decorated—they were painted, or surrounded by brickwork or trellises. Many of these water towers are now perceived as architectural landmarks, and are therefore preserved for historical posterity. Today, many water towers form the highest point in several small towns, and they are therefore used as community rallying points. They are outfitted with antennae or warning sirens, and are sometimes used to advertise local happenings. In recent years, however, many people are switching away from water towers. Instead, they are constructing pumps on top of pipes to increase water pressure. While these pumps are more straightforward than water towers, they are potentially more dangerous. If the pumps fail, then the decreased water pressure might suck contaminated water into the domestic water supplies. What is a water tower? A safe device for storing and pressurizing water that is now being supplanted by less safe alternatives.

All About Bubbles

A bubble is a globule of one thermodynamic phase inside of another, like a gas in a liquid. We commonly find bubbles in boiling water, carbonated sodas, sea foam, and gas pockets in glass. Learning about bubbles can teach us about many concepts, like shape, transparency, mirrored surfaces, colors, and flexibility.

About Bubbles: How Bubbles Form

Bubbles are produced by the scientific process of nucleation. Nucleation occurs when a small pocket of one thermodynamic phase forms inside of another. In bubbles, the thermodynamic phase of a gas forms inside of the thermodynamic phase of a liquid. However, pure water is not stable enough to produce a lingering bubble. We use soap to stabilize bubbles, allowing them to linger for longer. Many incorrectly believe that soap increases water’s surface tension. This is not true. In fact, soap decreases water’s surface tension. Soap does not strengthen bubbles, it merely stabilizes them.

About Bubbles: How We Use Bubbles

We use bubbles in many ways, both practical and fun. We use bubbles in ultrasounds to help us better see babies. We use bubbles to better understand mathematical concepts, like minimal surface area. Performance artists use bubbles for their aesthetic properties. We also use bubbles as toys. Children have been playing with bubbles since the 1600s. Toy stores sell about two hundred million bottles of bubble mixture every year.

About Bubbles: Why Bubbles Pop

When disturbed, bubbles pulsate, or rapidly oscillate in size. These oscillations destabilize bubbles, leading them to eventually tear apart. The popping of bubbles below produces most of the liquid sounds that we hear.

About Bubbles: Make Your Own Bubbles

If you would like to learn more about bubbles, you can do so by observing them yourself. Enjoy educational, fun homemade bubbles by mixing your own bubble solution. Simply combine ½ a cup of dishwashing liquid, two teaspoons of sugar, and two cups of water to make bubbles whenever you want.

The history of human civilization is enmeshed with the history of water. Water has guided civilization more than any other factor. Early civilizations were centered around water sources; the secure water supply of the Fertile Crescent enabled some of the first large-scale agricultural civilizations. Water allows people to sustain themselves and their animals and determines what can be grown and where. As civilizations learn how to better control water—to irrigate and to predict the weather, for instance—they learn how to grow. Even today we still center our civilizations around water. The Middle East is exploding with wars over clean water access. As the World Bank Vice President Serageldin famously stated, “Many of the wars of the twentieth century were about oil, but the wars of the next century will be about water.”

Reasons for the History of Water

Nowadays, after the growth of industries, clean drinking water doesn’t naturally occur. Scientists continually discover contaminants in fresh water sources and correlates between drinking contaminated water and health problems. Because we need water but it is impure, we have learned to treat water. However, the history of water filtration is not a recent one; water filtration began over 4000 years ago.

Milestones in the History of Water

Some milestones in the history of water include the invention of the microscope, the advent of municipal water treatment, the use of chlorine to purify water, and the Clean Water Act of 1972.

Early in the History of Water

The earliest recorded attempts to filter water date back to 2000 BC, to early Sanskrit writings of water purification methods. These methods include boiling water and filtering water through sand or charcoal filters. The Sanskrits’ biggest motive was to make water taste better, because they assumed that good-tasting water would also be clean. People didn’t yet realize that contaminated water caused disease, and they certainly couldn’t test for diseases in water.

Later Innovations in the History of Water

In 1590, the Dutch glasses-makers Zaccharias and Hans Janssen invented the forerunner to modern-day microscopes. A century later, Anton van Leeuwenhoek, “the father of microscopy,” advanced the Janssens’ invention to the extent that scientists could now view tiny living particles in water that had previously been thought clean. In nineteenth-century London, city officials first linked cholera to bad water quality. John Snow, a British scientist, confirmed cholera bacteria in the Broad Street Pump’s water, proving that taste and visual clarity doesn’t prove water’s pureness. After this event, the British government insisted upon filtering city water, a precedent for municipal water systems. The British municipal water system cleaned water partly by treating it with chlorine.

The History of Water Continues

In the 20^th century, people increasingly agreed that every person has the right to clean water. The Clean Water Act (CWA) of 1972 made it a law that every city in the United States must have a water treatment plant. The CWA forced industrial plants to become environmentally friendly and renewed interest in water filtration, making clean water a national goal. Today the history of water continues as we strive to bring clean water to places that still need it.

The history of water treatment has been marked by slow, gradual discoveries that coincided with human development.  While water filtration technology only became successful and widely used in the 20^th century, the history of water treatment can be traced back to thousands of years ago.

Early in The History of Water Treatment

Man has sought pure, clean water for as long as he has been on Earth.  The earliest recorded mention of water filtration and purification can be found in Sanskrit writings from about 2000 B.C.E.  These writings state that “impure water should be purified by being boiled over a fire…or it may be purified by filtration through sand and coarse gravel and then allowed to cool.”  This demonstrates that even in some of the earliest civilizations the basics of water purification were known.  There is also some evidence that the ancient Egyptians used wick siphons for water clarification.  Later, following the tutelage of Hippocrates, the Greek and Roman empires used cloth bags and additives such as pounded barley to filter out bad tastes in water.

Important Discoveries in the History of Water Treatment

After Sir Francis Bacon renewed interest in filtration in 1627, a number of important scientific discoveries deeply affected the history of water treatment.  Around 1690, Anton van Leeuwenhoek invented an early version of the modern microscope, which allowed scientists to more effectively study particles in water.  Meanwhile, in Italy, Lucas Antonius Portius invented the first effective sand filtration system using multiple perforated compartments and large grains of sand.  These two inventions allowed people in 19^th century Britain to examine disease-causing bacteria in water and create one of the world’s first municipal water treatment systems.

Modern Developments in the History of Water Treatment

In the early 1900s, English physicians discovered that chlorine was very effective in eliminating disease from water, and chlorination of public water systems began.  The United States and other countries soon followed suit, and in 1972, the Environmental Protection Agency passed the Clean Water Act, requiring cities to filter public water.  Today, amid growing concerns about the safety of water fluoridation and chlorination, individual households have begun to install filtration devices to taps, showerheads, and entire plumbing systems.

The History of Water Treatment Continues

The history of water filtration is still being written.  While individuals in America and other countries continue to improve the quality of household water, many people in developing countries lack the ability to properly filter their water.  The challenge moving forward will be in improving water filtration for all of humanity.

Your Irrigation System: Water Your Garden Efficiently and Effectively

The Flood Irrigation System

The Drip Irrigation System

The Spray Irrigation System

Many people hear about hard and soft water without really knowing what those terms mean. Understanding how water is classified lets a homeowner make an informed choice when it comes to the family drinking water and general household water supply. Some people absolutely love soft water, while others strictly prefer the qualities of hard water.

What are the differences between hard and soft water?

Hard water contains naturally occurring concentrations of calcium, lime and magnesium. This can be seen in the residue that hard water can leave behind on surfaces like shower walls and sinks. Soft water, on the other hand, is treated to only contain ions of sodium, giving soft water a slightly salty taste. Because of this, people may notice a subtle difference in the tastes of hard and soft water.

Both types of water originate with rainwater that filters through underground rocks. Water becomes ‘hard’ when the water passes through soft, loose rock containing minerals and calcium that easily break apart and are carried into the water flow. In contrast, soft water passes through hard granite rock, picking up very trace amounts of minerals.

Between hard and soft water, why would a person want soft water?

Some homeowners prefer soft water because the lack of mineral content keeps their kitchen appliances and plumbing from requiring extra maintenance, while lengthening their life spans. Hard water deposits are also harder to clean from surfaces in the bathroom and kitchen.

Bathing in soft water has the added health benefit of leaving hair clean without stripping it of important natural oils. It’s also known to be beneficial for those with sensitive or breakout-prone skin, as soft water does not clog pores like hard water can.

Hard and soft water: is hard water harmful?

According to studies done by the National Research Council, there is no evidence that drinking hard water can cause adverse health issues, but can instead be beneficial. Drinking hard water that contains small amounts of calcium and magnesium can be valuable to those who don’t get enough of these minerals by daily diet alone. As such, for health benefits, hard water is more often recommended as the drinking water of choice.

Hard and soft water: how can I tell if my water is hard or soft?

The easiest way to tell if water is hard or soft is to look for residue on surfaces. White, scaly residue or even green discoloration around water pipes means calcium and lime are present in the water. Sometimes, holding a glass of tap water up to the sunlight will show the tiny particles of minerals and calcium deposits that are present in hard water. To be sure, buy a home water testing kit.

The Verdict on Hard and Soft Water

Both hard and soft water have their pros and cons and choosing between hard or soft water for drinking, bathing and household chores is a personal choice. Some families combine the best of both worlds by using hard water for drinking and soft water for bathing and washing clothes, but both are perfectly safe.

It’s easy to not think about how much water is used to make things that we use everyday. However, besides implementing tips for water conservation, understanding how water is used to make things is important in our goal of reducing water consumption. It’s not just the water used to make stuff but also the water used for growing, processing and transporting. For example, cotton uses a tremendous amount of water to grow and to eventually become a pair of stylish jeans. Those morning lattes from the local coffeeshop use more water than is served in a given cup. And given the huge amounts of water used in manufacturing, many companies are looking for ways to reduce their water footprints.

How Much Water Does Agriculture Use?

It takes much more water to make things for the American dinner table than one would imagine. Obviously food crops need water to thrive, however, many people would be surprised to learn how much water is used to grow our food. It takes almost 20 gallons of water for one apple, 4,000 gallons for one bushel of corn and 11,000 gallons for one bushel of wheat. It takes over 15,000 gallons of water to raise a cow from birth to slaughter.

How Much Water Does It Take to Make Food?

It takes an amazing 53 gallons of water to make a latte. This figure may be hard to believe given that most lattes are just over a cup. Planet Green’s Brian Merchant states in a recent article that each latte requires water for the cane sugar’s growth, the plastic lid’s manufacture, the paper cup and sleeve’s manufacture, as wells as for the transportation costs for all of the above. Hamburgers take a whopping 634 gallons of water to make mostly given the cost of raising beef.

How Much Water Does It Take to Make Clothing?

According to OnEarth.org, it takes over 1,500 gallons of water  to produce the cotton in one pair of jeans. And that’s just for growing the cotton, it doesn’t include the water used to dye jeans or to ‘weather’ them so that new jeans look and feel ‘broken in.’ It takes 400 gallons of water to grow the cotton to make one shirt. Water consumption for growing cotton crops is huge and cotton is the largest natural fiber textile in the world accounting for 40% of textile production.

How Much Water Does Our Corporate Footprint Reflect?

Most companies know how much water it takes to make things and are looking for ways to decrease water consumption for their products and for their supply chains. For example, Levi’s has recently introduced a new brand called Water less, that reduces water usage by an average of 28% and up to 96% for some products. Water Footprint Network recommends that companies complete their water footprint assessment manual to review their water usage. It provides for a global standard on definitions and calculations how how much water we’re using.

Many people wonder how good the water quality in their area is. When water contains contaminants, it leaves behind tiny particles that are dissolved in the water, particles that are called “total dissolved solids.”  This map charts total dissolved solids in the water. Although this chart doesn’t show exactly which contaminants are present in your water and whether they’re bad for you, it’s still a good measure of water purity.

Click on the map to find out more about your local water quality.

Fluoride in water supplies is quite a controversial topic these days. As with nearly every topic, there are two sides of the fluoride debate. Some believe fluoride to be beneficial, especially in oral health and overall costs. Others, however, believe the possible side effects of fluoride in the water to be far too risky and even unethical.

Fluoride in Water Fights Tooth Decay

According to the Center of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), fluorides prevents tooth decay. Bacterias from certain foods create acids which eat away the natural minerals lining the teeth. Fluoride restores the minerals, preventing further damage to the tooth, and even helping to restore damaged teeth. When it is in the water supply, teeth are repeatedly exposed to the fluoride, allowing for frequent protection. Tooth decay has become extremely prevalent, especially in children and teenagers. Half of teens, ages 12-15, have at least one cavity. Fluoridated water can be very beneficial to people of every age, as studies have shown that over a person’s lifetime, tooth decay can be reduced by 25 percent.

Fluoride in Water Saves Money

Due to the consistent protection teeth receive through fluoridated water, overall costs of oral health decrease. The outright cost to fluoridate water is about .50 per person, based on a city of 20,000 or more. The CDC claims that “every $1 invested in this preventive measure yields approximately $38 savings in dental treatment costs.” Fluoridated water is more cost effective than obtaining fluoride from other means, such as toothpaste or mouth washes, though these methods still provide the same protection.

Risks of Fluoride in Water

Not everyone is convinced that fluoride is beneficial, however, and believe the risks and potential side effects of fluoride outweigh the benefits. Some studies show that fluoride can potentially cause cancer, lower the IQ, cause changes in bone structure and inhibit the immune system. One study in the United Kingdom showing that miscarriages and birth defects were 15 percent more likely in areas with fluoridated water, compared to those without it. Additionally, in this fluoridated city, Down’s Syndrome was 30 percent more likely. Like everything, fluoride has potential side effects, but that does not mean that these side effects will come to fruition. The CDC has deemed use of fluoride safe, though risks do still exist.

The Verdict on Fluoride in Water

Though there are benefits to fluoride in water supplies, there are also risks to be accounted for before deciding one way or another.

Chlorine in Water Treatment

Chlorine is a common disinfectant that is widely used for water disinfection. Chlorine’s disinfecting properties has made it useful in providing clean and safe tap water for many homes and communities. However, chlorine in water also has its own set of health risks. Because of this, it is advantageous to know the different ways to remove chlorine from water or entirely replace the application of chlorine in treating water.

Why There’s Chlorine in Water

Chlorine in water is well known and widely used as a disinfectant. The application of chlorine is effective for deactivating various pathogenic microorganisms – mostly bacteria or viruses, which cause illness. Chlorine is usually added into public water supplies in order to kill different bacteria present in the water or the water pipes. These bacteria can be hazardous to human health. Aside from disinfecting water, chlorine is also used to disinfect various home and hospital areas and bleach fabrics. These different applications of chlorine have been in use for over two centuries.

The Health Risks of Chlorine in Water

All of the disinfecting qualities of Chlorine come with a price though. It has been identified that chlorine in water reacts with different naturally-occurring components which cause it to form into toxins called trihalomethanes (THM). There has been a connection seen between THMs and disease like asthma, eczema, heart diseases and bladder cancer. Dr. Peter Montague from the Environmental Research Foundation has enumerated a number of studies that have shown that pregnant women who drink chlorinated tap water in moderate to large amounts are at a high risk of suffering miscarriages and birth defects.

Ways to Remove Chlorine in Water

A carbon filter is proving to be an effective device for removing chlorine, toxins like THMs and other harmful contaminants from water. Another benefit of using a carbon filter is that it is cheaper compared to other electronic filters but produces the same good quality water. There is also a simpler way of removing chlorine and other compounds from water without the need for a home filtration system. This involves placing water in an uncovered container and leaving it for 24 hours inside the refrigerator.

Alternatives to Using Chlorine in Water

Although resolving water contamination and cleaning up watersheds is proving to be a challenging ordeal, there are alternatives to using chlorine as a form of water treatment. Dr. Peter Montague also shares that a number of Canadian and European cities are using ozone to disinfect their water instead of chlorinating it. Cities in the United States like Las Vegas and Santa Clara are also switching to this alternative. We could all become healthier by switching away from using chlorine in water.